MEDIEVAL WEAPONS
Medieval Knight weapons
The Weapons of the Medieval Knight
Over the centuries the weapons that Medieval Knights wielded changed dramatically. These changes were mostly due to improvements in the technologies of blacksmithing and metalworking. The Primary weapon of the Knight throughout the centuries of knighthood was without a doubt the sword. There were many weapons at the disposal of the knight but the sword was the weapon that held the most prestige and honor to wield and master. Ansd the sword, like the other weapons changed dramatically over the centuries as technology changed.
The History of the Sword
The first swords were made of bronze over two thousand years ago. They were rather short and predominantly used as stabbing weapons. Around the 13th century the Iron Age began and swordmaking changed. Now swords could be made stronger and longer. They became slicing and stabbing weapons and they could be made at a reasonable cost so armies could be equipped with basic weapons.
(The Late Middle Ages) After the 13th centuryAs Armor made advances in its abililty to protect so the sword also made advances in its ability to thwart the defenses. Some of the advances during this time are the longer handle which allowed for two handed use and a variety of specialized swords that could cut and thrust; seeking out weaknesses in armor. (The Modern Era)
One of the biggest advances in the modern era was the development of the basket that protected the hand. This first appeared in Rapiers. Advances in metal working created swords that were lighter and quicker yet stronger. As weapons technology advanced the sword made the transition into a gentlemanly accoutrement used only for personal defense and then finally as sidearms became more available the sword fell from common use.
Other Weapons of the Knight
Warhammers
This weapons was a natural extension of the blacksmith hammer. It had a hammer on one end which could deliver a shocking blow and on the other end it often had a pick like point that could be used to penetrate the armor of an opponent. The Mace
This was the basic weapon of a knight and it was very popular in the early middle ages because it was easy to build, often it was made of wood with no metal or with spikes sticking out of the head. It was used to deliver massive blows to the enemy. The one shown here is called a flanged mace and it had small flanged that came to a point that could pierce armor. When a mace had a ball on the end of it and long spikes like nails it was called a morning star mace. Learn more about this mace reproduction at Amazon. The Flail
The flail was a very effective weapon but it was not very popular among knights. The effectiveness of the flail was that it could be swung and the chain and ball could wrap itself up and around an opponents shield to find its target. Swinging a flail could generate a tremendous force, much more than that of a mace. The flail shown here is a morning star flail because of the morning stars at the end of the chain. Jousting and Mounted Weapons
One of the most important sets of weapons that a knight used were the polearm weapons that were wielded while on horseback. These weapons were longer than the normal weapon and usually anywhere from six to twelve feet in length. You are probably familiar with the Lance. It was used to dismount other knights from their horses and the jousting version was hollow and blunted so as not to seriously injure the opponent. Other polearm weapons that a knight used were the Poleaxe, the Spear, and the Halberd.
MORE KNIGHTS WEAPONS
Some Other Weapons of the Medieval Knight
- The Dagger, although this was not a popular weapon because it was considered to be sneaky and for assassins. In later centuries the dagger regained some of its esteem as a ceremonial and dress weapon for show and display
- Axe - This was an effective weapon in that it had a blade on one side and a hammer or pick on the other for a variety of striking options. It also often had a piercing point at the bottom of the handle for close in fighting. .
- Halberd - This was a polearm weapon that was often six feet long or more. It was an effective weapon in that it often had a slicing blade like an axe, a pointed end for stabbing and a hook for pulling at the opponent.
- Poleaxe - Very much like the regular axe but mounted on a long pole.
A Medieval Knight had many weapons to choose from and to master and this mastery of weapons was the most important training that a knight undertook. It was something that he worked on for his entire life. And although the sword was his primary weapon he was almost always proficient at many of the other weapons too.
Want to see an armory full of the knights weapons? Check out the Medieval Armory - It has lots of knight's weapons including pictures and explanations, maces,shields, armor, halberds, swords, daggers, polearms, crossbows and many more.
Middle Ages Weapons
The period referred to as the Middle Ages was extremely violent. The quest for wealth and power was driven by the violent culture of the European countries. Castles were built to act as power bases. Lands were subject to invasion. There was the need for a variety of Middles Ages weapons to suit the Knights, foot soldiers and archers of the Era. This was the period of the Norman conquest and the battle of Hastings. The fighting in Europe had a brief respite when the attentions of the Medieval warlords turned their attention to the Holy Land when their Middle Ages weapons were used by the Knights Templar, Teutonic Knights and the Hospitallers to fight in the crusades. Middle Ages Weaponry was vital to the religious knights. What are the weapons of the Middle Ages? There were basically two types of armed men during the Medieval era who used different weapons available during the Middle Ages: § The Knights § The Foot soldiers, who included the Archers The Medieval men-at-arms held weapons according to their status and position which was determined by the Feudal system. The weapons, weaponry, armor and horse of the Knight were extremely expensive. Lords were expected to provide soldiers who were trained in a variety of Middle Ages weapons. Knights were supported by their soldiers and the Middle Ages weapons used by the lower classes included
Polearms A pole weapon or polearm is a close combat weapon in which the main fighting part of the weapon is placed on the end of a long shaft, typically of wood, thereby extending the user's effective range. Spears, glaives, poleaxes, halberds, and bardiches are all varieties of polearm. The idea of attaching a weapon onto a long shaft is an old one, as the first spears date back to the Stone Age. The purpose of using pole weapons is either to extend reach or to increase angular momentum-—and thus striking power-—when the weapon is swung. HISTORY...
Pole weapons are relatively simple to make, and they were fairly easy for most people to use effectively as they were often derived from hunting or agricultural tools. For example, the Chinese Monk's spade, with its shovel-like end, served two purposes for the monks who used it: if they came upon a corpse on the road, they could properly bury it with Buddhist rites; and the large implement could serve as a weapon for self-defense against bandits. Massed men carrying pole weapons with pointed tips (spears, pikes, etc.) were recognized fairly early in the history of organized warfare as effective military units. On defense the men holding the polearms were hard to reach; on the attack, as in the Greek phalanx, they were devastating to those units which could not get out of the way. With the advent of armored fighters, especially cavalry, pole weapons frequently combined the spearpoint (for thrusting) with an axe or hammerhead for a swinging strike which could pierce or break armor. In more recent times, pole weapons have largely been superseded as battlefield weapons by firearms. However, the bayonet of a modern rifle (especially sword bayonet or knife bayonet), when attached, can still be regarded as a form of pole weapon. Today, the military use of pole weapons is restricted to ceremonial guards, such as the Papal Swiss Guard or Yeoman of the Guard. They also remain a common sight in many schools of martial arts that study weapons. Battle Axes "Battleaxe" redirects here. For other uses, see Battleaxe (disambiguation). A Viking "Bearded Axe" ca. 1000 (top) and a German Horsemans Axe ca. 1100 (bottom)A battle axe (also battle-axe or battle-ax) is an axe specifically designed for use in melee. Battle axes were specialized versions of utility axes. Many were suitable for use in one hand, while others were larger and were wielded two-handed. Axes designed for warfare ranged in weight from just over 0.5 kg to 3 kg (1 to 6 pounds), and in length from just over 30 cm to upwards of 1.5 m (1 to 5 feet), such as the Danish axe or the sparth axe. Anything longer than 1.5 m would arguably fall more into the category of polearms. Through the course of human history, commonplace objects have been pressed into service as weapons. Axes, by virtue of their ubiquity, are no exception. Besides axes designed for combat, there were many axes that were both tools and weapons. Axes could be designed as throwing weapons as well (see the francisca for an example). Axes were always cheaper than swords and far more available
Billhook The billhook (also bill hook) is a traditional cutting tool used mainly in European agriculture and forestry, but also common in other parts of the world where it was introduced by European settlers. It is used for cutting smaller woody material such as shrubs and branches
DESIGN...
The blade is usually made from a medium-carbon steel in varying weights and lengths, but typically 20 to 25 centimetres (7.9 to 9.8 in) long. Blades are straight near the handle but have an increasingly strong curve towards the end. The blade is generally sharpened only on the inside of the curve, but double-edged billhooks, or "broom hooks", also have a straight secondary edge on the back. The blade is fixed to a wooden handle, in Europe usually made from ash due to its strength and ability to deal with repeated impact. Handles are mostly 12 to 15 centimetres (4.7 to 5.9 in) long and may be caulked or round. Longer handles may sometimes be used for heavier patterns, making the tool double-handed. The blade and handle are usually linked by a tang passing through the handle, but sometimes a socket that encloses the blade. Some styles of billhook may have scales[1] of hardwood or horn fitted to the handle. Some billhooks (for example the Kent pattern) have a single-bevelled blade, available in both right- and left-handed versions, others (such as the Machynlleth pattern) have dished blades (concave one side and convex the other), or a pronounced thickened nose (such as the Monmouth pattern). The reasons for many of these variations are now lost. The use of a billhook is between that of a knife and an axe. It is often used for cutting woody plants such as saplings and small branches, for hedging and for snedding (stripping the side shoots from a branch). In France and Italy it is widely used for pruning grape vines. The billhook is the European equivalent of tools such as machetes, parangs, kukris, etc. The billhook's use as a cutting tool goes back to the Bronze Age, and a few examples survive from this period—for example found in the sea around Greece. Iron examples from the later Iron Age have been found in pre-Roman settlements in several English counties as well as in France and Switzerland. The tool has developed a large variety of names in different parts of Britain, including bill, hedging bill, hand bill, hook bill, billhook, brishing hook and broom hook. In American English a billhook may sometimes be referred to as a "fascine knife". Made on a small scale in village smithies and in larger industrial sites (e.g. Old Ironstone Works, Mells) the billhook is still relatively common throughout most of western Europe. During the 19th and early 20th centuries the larger manufacturers offered up to 200 or so different regional styles and shapes of blade, sometimes in a range of different sizes from 6 to 11 inches (15 to 28 cm) long in 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) steps. The French firm of Talabot boasted in their 1930 catalogue that they held over 3000 different patterns in their archives.
Caltrops A caltrop (also known as caltrap, galtrop, cheval trap, galthrap, galtrap, calthrop, crow's foot[1][2]) is an antipersonnel weapon made up of two or more sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base (for example, a tetrahedron). They may be thought of as the landmines of antiquity, useful to shape the battlefield and force the enemy into certain paths and approaches, or to provide a passive defense as part of a defensive works system. Caltrops serve to slow down the advance of horses, war elephants, and human troops. They were said to be particularly effective against the soft feet of camels.[3] In more modern times, caltrops are used against wheeled vehicles with pneumatic tires. The modern name "caltrop" is derived from the Latin calcitrapa (foot-trap). The synonymous Latin word tribulus gave rise to the modern Latin name of a plant offering similar hazards to sandaled or bare feet, Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae), whose spiked seed case can also injure feet and puncture tires. This plant can also be compared to the starthistle Centaurea calcitrapa, which is sometimes called the "caltrop".
Flail The military flail or simply flail is a weapon commonly attributed to the Middle-Ages but for which only a limited amount of historical evidence currently exists for most of this era. There is evidence for the long-handled flail as a weapon of war from Germany and Central Europe in the later Middle Ages. In the poem Le Chevalier Délibéré written by Olivier de la Marche and first published in 1486, there is an anonymous woodcut depicting a knight carrying a rather simple morning star with spikes mounted in an asymmetrical pattern, as well as a flail equipped with a single spiked ball[citation needed], known in German as a "Kettenmorgenstern" (literally chain-morningstar) which is technically a military flail. In spite of the lack of frequent historial reference to use of flails, the weapon (sometimes called mace and chain or ball and chain) was a stock figure in Victorian Era Medievalist literature and thus has become entrenched in popular medieval fantasy and thus the neomedievalist imagination. Typically, the weapon is depicted as one (or more) weights attached to a handle with a hinge or chain. Modern authors have used multiple conflicting names for this weapon: the "mace and chain" is the equivalent of the German "morningstar and chain" refered to above, but the latter term is rarely used in English. Additionally, the English terms "morning star" (a rigid haft topped with a spiked ball), and even "mace" (a bludgeoning weapon similar to a morning star), which properly refer to non-chained weapons, have also been used to refer to the military flail.
Halberd "Halbert" redirects here. For other uses, see Halbert (disambiguation). Swedish halberd heads from the 16th century Halberdiers from a modern day reenactor troupe.A halberd (also called halbert or Swiss voulge) is a two-handed pole weapon that came to prominent use during the 14th and 15th centuries. Possibly the word halberd comes from the German words Halm (staff), and Barte (axe). The halberd consists of an axe blade topped with a spike mounted on a long shaft. It always has a hook or thorn on the back side of the axe blade for grappling mounted combatants. [1] It is very similar to certain forms of the voulge in design and usage. The halberd was 1.5 to 1.8 meters (5 to 6 feet) long. [2]The halberd was cheap to produce and very versatile in battle. As the halberd was eventually refined, its point was more fully developed to allow it to better deal with spears and pikes (also able to push back approaching horsemen), as was the hook opposite the axe head, which could be used to pull horsemen to the ground. [3]Additionally, halberds were reinforced with metal rims over the shaft, thus making effective weapons for blocking other weapons like swords. This capability increased its effectiveness in battle, and expert halberdiers were as deadly as any other weapon masters.[citation needed] It is said[by whom?] that a halberd in the hands of a Swiss peasant was the weapon that killed the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, decisively ending the Burgundian Wars, literally in a single stroke.[citation needed] The halberd was the primary weapon of the early Swiss armies in the 14th and early 15th centuries. Later on, the Swiss added the pike to better repel knightly attacks and roll over enemy infantry formations, with the halberd, hand-and-a-half sword, or the dagger known as the Schweizerdolch being used for closer combat. The German Landsknechte, who imitated Swiss warfare methods, also used the halberd, supplemented by the pike, but their side arm of choice was the short sword known as the Katzbalger.[citation needed] As long as pikemen fought other pikemen, the halberd remained a useful supplemental weapon for "push of pike," but when their position became more defensive, to protect the slow-loading arquebusiers and matchlock musketeers from sudden attacks by cavalry, the percentage of halberdiers in the pike units steadily decreased, until the halberd all but disappeared from these formations as a rank-and-file weapon by the middle of the sixteenth century. [4]The halberd has been used as a court bodyguard weapon for centuries, and is still the ceremonial weapon of the Swiss Guard in the Vatican. [5] The halberd was one of the polearms sometimes carried by lower-ranking officers in European infantry units in the 16th through 18th centuries.
Longbow This article is about the type of bow. For the military helicopter, see Apache Longbow. Lemonwood, purpleheart and hickory longbow, 45 lbf (200 N) draw force. Longbowmen executing Saint Sebastian. German painting from ca. 1493A longbow is a type of bow that is tall (roughly equal to the height of the person who uses it); this will allow its user a fairly long draw, at least to the jaw (the average length of the Mary Rose arrowshafts is 75 cm/30 in). A longbow is not significantly recurved. Its limbs are relatively narrow so that they are circular or D-shaped in cross section. Flatbows can be just as long; the difference is that, in cross-section, a flatbow has limbs that are approximately rectangular. Organizations which run archery competitions have set out formal definitions for the various classes; many definitions of the longbow would exclude some medieval examples, materials, and techniques of use.[1][2] According to the British Longbow Society, the English longbow is made so that its thickness is at least ⅝ (62.5%) of its width, as in Victorian longbows, and is widest at the handle. This differs from the Medieval longbow, which had a thickness between 33% and 75% of the width. Also, the Victorian longbow does not bend throughout the entire length, as does the medieval longbow. Longbows have been used for hunting and warfare, by many cultures around the world, a famous example being the English longbow, during the Middle Ages.
Crossbow A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts or quarrels. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a torsion engine resembling a crossbow in appearance. Historically, crossbows played a significant role in the warfare of East Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean. Today, they are used primarily for target shooting and hunting.
DESIGN... Modern crossbowA crossbow is a bow mounted on a stick (called a tiller or stock) with a mechanism in it which holds the drawn bow string. The earliest designs utilized a slot in the stock, down into which the cocked string was placed. To fire this design, a vertical rod is thrust up through a hole in the bottom of the notch, forcing the string out. This rod is usually attached perpendicular to a rear-facing firing lever called a trigger or 'tickler'. A later design utilized a rolling cylindrical pawl called a 'nut' to retain the cocked string. This nut has a perpendicular center slot for the bolt, and an intersecting axial slot for the string, along with a lower face or slot against which the internal trigger sits. They often also have some form of strengthening internal 'sear' or trigger face, usually of metal. These 'roller nuts' were either free-floating in their close-fitting hole across the stock, tied in with a binding of sinew or other strong cording, or mounted on a metal axle or pins. Removable or integral plates of wood, ivory or metal on the sides of the stock kept the nut in place laterally. Nuts were made of antler, bone, ivory or metal (usually brass). A trigger system, (usually made of iron or steel from medieval times onwards), was used to retain the force of the cocked string in the nut and then release the nut to spin and the string to shoot the bolt. Sophisticated bronze triggers with safety notches are known to have been used on crossbows from ancient China. Complicated iron triggers that could be released with little strength are known in Europe from the early 1400s. As a result crossbows could be kept cocked and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, allowing crossbowmen to aim better. The bow (called the "prod" or "lath" on a crossbow) of early crossbows was made of a single piece of wood, usually ash or yew. Composite bows are made from layers of different material—often wood, horn and sinew—glued together and bound with animal tendon. These composite bows, made of several layers, are much stronger and more efficient in releasing energy than simple wooden bows. As steel became more widely available in Europe around the 14th century, steel prods came into use The crossbow prod is very short compared to ordinary bows, resulting in a short draw length. This leads to a higher draw weight in order to store the same amount of energy. Furthermore the thick prods are a bit less efficient at releasing energy, but more energy can be stored by a crossbow. Traditionally the prod was often lashed to the stock with rope, whipcord, or other strong cording. This cording is called the bridle. The strings for a crossbow are typically made of strong fibers that would not tend to fray. Whipcord was very common; however linen, hemp, and sinew were used as well. In wet conditions, twisted mulberry root was occasionally used. Crossbows have a shorter draw length than bows, resulting in the need of a greater amount of draw force in order to store the same amount of energy. Very light crossbows can be drawn by hand, but heavier types need the help of mechanical devices. The simplest version of mechanical cocking device is a hook attached to a belt, drawing the bow by straightening the legs. Other devices are hinged levers which either pulled or pushed the string into place, cranked rack-and-pinion devices called 'cranequins' and multiple cord-and-pulley cranked devices called windlasses.
Quarterstaff A quarterstaff is a medieval English weapon, a shaft of hardwood, sometimes with metal tips. The name is also used for the fighting staves such as the Japanese bō, Chinese gùn, or French bâton, Portuguese cajado and Italian bastone.
Spears A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a sharpened head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with bamboo spears, or it may be of another material fastened to the shaft, such as obsidian, iron or bronze. The most common design is of a metal spearhead, shaped like a triangle or a leaf. Spears were one of the most common personal weapons from the Stone Age until the advent of firearms. They may be seen as the ancestor of such weapons as the lance, the halberd, the naginata, the bill and the pike. One of the earliest weapons fashioned by human beings and their ancestors, it is still used for hunting and fishing, and its influences can still be seen in contemporary military arsenals as the rifle-mounted bayonet. Spears can be used as both melee and ballistic weapons. Spears used primarily for thrusting may be used with either one or two hands and tend to have heavier and sturdier designs than those intended exclusively for throwing. Those designed for throwing, often referred to as javelins, tend to be lighter and have a more streamlined head, and can be thrown either by hand or with the assistance of a spear thrower such as the atalatl or woomera.
WarhammerA war hammer is a late medieval weapon of war intended for close combat action, the design of which resembles the hammer. The war hammer consists of a handle and a head. The handle may be of different lengths, the longest being roughly equivalent to the halberd, and the shortest about the same as a mace. Long war hammers were pole weapons (polearms) meant for use against riders, whereas short ones were used in closer quarters and from horseback. Later war hammers often had a spike on one side of the head, thus making it a more versatile weapon. War hammers were developed as a consequence of the ever more prevalent surface-hardened steel surfacing of wrought iron armors of the late medieval battlefields during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The surface of the armour was now as hard as the edge of a blade, so a blade tended to ricochet. Swords, or the blade of a battleaxe, were likely only to give a glancing blow, losing much of the impact, especially on the high curvature of the helmet. The war hammer could deliver the full force to the target. War hammers, especially when mounted on a pole, by impact alone, could damage without penetrating the armour. In particular, they transmitted an impact through even the thickest helmet and skull to damage the brain against its own skull. A blade or spike tended to be used against other parts of the body where the armour was thinner, and penetration was easier, than through the helmet. The spike end could be used for grappling the target's armour, reins, or shield, or could be turned in the direction of the blow to pierce even heavy armour. Against mounted opponents, the weapon could also be directed at the legs of the horse, toppling the armoured foe to the ground where he could be more easily attacked.
ScimitarThis article is about the sword. For other uses, see Scimitar (disambiguation). An Indian scimitar sword Look up scimitar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. A scimitar (pronounced /ˈsɪmɪtər/) is a sword with a curved blade design finding its origins in Southwest Asia (Middle East). The name can be used to refer to almost any Middle Eastern or South Asian sword with a curved blade, and is often thought of as having a ridge near the end. They include Arabic saif, Indian talwar, Persian shamshir, and Turkish kilij and yatağan, among others. Scimitars in history Scimitars have a long history. Scimitars were used in horse warfare because of its relatively light weight when compared to larger swords and it is good for slashing opponents, while riding on a horse, because of its curved design. Mongols, Rajputs and Sikhs used scimitars in warfare among many other people. Many Islamic traditions adopted scimitars, as attested by their symbolic occurrence, e.g. on the Coat of arms of Saudi Arabia.The earliest evidence of curved swords, or scimitars, is from the 9th century, when it was used among soldiers in the Khurasan region of Persi
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SWORDS AND SHIELDS
SWORDS
Swords are considered as the mainstay of the military combats throughout history. Skilled Indian craftsmen trained in the techniques of swordmaking create individually handmade functional swords.
The immense fighting skills and capabilities of the ancient warriors speak of the legend in India. Indian swords are designed keeping in mind their unbreakability, rigidity and cutting power that blend together giving the sword, a very unique character. The value of an ideal sword is determined by type, style, condition, age, maker and many other factors. They are built with a strictly practical origin and elaborated far beyond the simple requirement of hard-wearing efficiency in slaughter.
Medieval swords and various other weapons, throughout history have been used as weapons. They are now used as decorative items for homes & offices, for ceremonial purposes, as status symbols and for the collector. They are must for the historical collectors and for those who appreciate a quality functional weapon. Reviviving the glorious Indian warfare, the swords are often beautifully detailed bringing the lore of the ancient Indian age to the decor.
HISTORY OF SWORDS
Swords have changed with the abilities of man to forge and work metals. The first swords are generally considered to have appeared around 2,000 BC during the Bronze age.
(The Bronze Age)
As the ability to work metals improved longer blades were possible to make and the dagger evolved into the sword. This happened in various parts of the world during the bronze age (2,000 BC to ca. 1400 BC). The bronze age sword was predominantly a stabbing weapon with a very small leaf shaped hilt.
(The Iron Age)
Around the 13th century BC Iron working skills brought forth the Iron sword. And although it is mosly inferior to the well made bronze sword it was an easier sword to make and could be produced in mass quantities. This meant that an armies could be supplied with swords. The Iron sword made a tremendous advance when it was discovered that by adding a small amount of carbon during the smelting process steel could be made. This created a sword far stronger and durable than the iron sword.
(The Middle ages)
Around the 11th to 13th century ad the sword had its first major change. The quillion or cross guard was added. The swords of this period were both single edged and double edged and were predominalty used as cutting weapons.
(The Late Middle Ages After the 13th century)
As Armor made advances in its abililty to protect so the sword also made advances in its ability to thwart the defenses. Some of the advances during this time are the longer handle which allowed for two handed use and a variety of specialized swords that could cut and thrust; seeking out weaknesses in armor.
(The Modern Era)
One of the biggest advances in the modern era was the development of the basket that protected the hand. This first appeared in Rapiers. Advances in metal working created swords that were lighter and quicker yet stronger. As weapons technology advanced the sword made the transition into a gentlemanly accoutrement used only for personal defense and then finally as sidearms became more available the sword fell from common use.
SWORDS AND DAGGERS – AN INTRODUCTION
Swords and daggers have a unique place in history. More than just personal weapons, they have served as fashion accessories, status symbols, coveted treasures, and precious gifts. But there is still something about them that cannot be explained – and must be experienced.
When you grasp a sword for the first time, remember you actually have a piece of history in the palm of your hand. For a quick moment you are experiencing the exact same feelings of excitement, awe and reverence people had thousands of years ago. As you reflect on your feelings, you might find yourself gently nod and think, “Now I understand why people love swords and daggers so much”.
Each historical time period has its own unique story to tell about the famous swords of their era. The victorious conquests of the Roman Empire and their Roman short swords are well known, as are adventures of chivalrous knights with medieval swords. Many wonderful tales of passion include Renaissance swords in perilous duels to reclaim honor and true love. Relive moments in time as you travel through this gateway to the past.
A History of the Sword and Dagger
Since the beginning, swords and daggers have existed as personal weapons. Man first developed daggers and knives made of bone or stone for use as cutting tools to separate game and prepare food. When the art of metal–working surfaced in Mesopotamia (between 3500–3000 B.C.), copper became the prized material for daggers and knives.
Centuries later bronze was developed which allowed blades to become longer, stronger and more resistant to damage and corrosion. This lead to the dawn of the Bronze Age and the birth of swords. These improved weapons increased man’s desire for great conquests, and lead to the customization of blades for warfare.
Soon countries were diligently producing special blade designs in hopes of new riches and victory over neighboring lands they would occupy. To ensure success, sword characteristics were modified based upon changes in combat techniques or information from spies regarding the armament of enemies.
In each historical time period, significant differences between swords often determined victory in war. This became especially true as iron and steel replaced previous metals. When you compare Roman swords to medieval swords and the Japanese Samurai Katana, it’s easy to see the unique characteristics of each sword. But it was how these swords performed in battle that forever labeled them as master weapons.
Basic sword parts and blade terminology is somewhat universal for Western swords, however a comparative review of Japanese sword diagrams reveals the master craftsmanship possessed by the Japanese Samurai.
All sword materials aside, the significant advancements in sword design include (in sequence of discovery):
The Central Rib down the center of the blade provided greater sword strength and stability.
The Hand Guard (quillion) kept your hand from slipping onto the blade and being injured and allowed for better gripping of the sword.
The Pommel functioned as a counterbalance making swords extremely balanced and maneuverable.
The Tang was created to provide an extended portion of the blade which could be covered by a handle thereby improving overall sword strength during slashing movements.
The Fuller was created by very slightly carving out the center of the sword blade which created a ‘valley–like’ groove. This reduced the weight of the sword and provided reinforced strength to the blade. The fuller also eliminated the suction (resistance) caused by removing the sword from an impaled victim.
See Basic sword parts and blade terminology for part definitions. See What’s the difference in Sword Materials? to learn about stainless steel versus high–carbon steel.
Many cultures created elaborate and ornate swords for people in high political positions like kings, emperors and noblemen, as well as military leaders and extraordinary warriors. These would have sword handles and scabbards made of precious metals like gold and elegantly bejeweled.
Interestingly enough, the Bible describes the sword as one of the critical weapons comprising the Full Armor of God (Ephesians 6:10–18).
HISTORICAL ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
MEDIEVAL ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Medieval swords and daggers have been made famous by valiant knights fighting dragons, conquering treacherous foes, and of course rescuing the ‘damsel in distress’. Medieval swords honoring the virtuous Knights Templar, Joan of Arch, fearless Crusaders, and other defenders of the castle can all be found here (within our Christian Sword Designs). Regardless of being new or old, swords allow you the unique opportunity to ‘touch’ history. Start your adventure today with a medieval sword, and bring the legend home!
ROMAN ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Roman swords and daggers have created a unique fascination among enthusiasts. The feared Legionnaire’s double–edged sword has been labeled ‘the sword that conquered the world’ and enabled the Legions of Rome to slaughter opposing forces for centuries. Although thousands of these swords were created during this era, true Roman sword relics are extremely rare and acquired only by the most prestigious of museums around the world. View our awesome selection of replica Roman Swords and Roman Daggers to find your favorite historical piece today!
RENAISSANCE ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Renaissance swords and daggers reflect an era of refinement, sophistication and culture. In the Renaissance, swords and daggers became more of a ‘fashion style’ than weapons of warfare. Lighter and shorter sword designs were needed to accommodate changes in personal combat as a new finessed art of swordsmanship surfaced (fencing). These shorter swords and rapiers quickly became in vogue replacing the large knightly swords of medieval times and forever claimed their place in history. Listen to the famed cry “en guard!” and the clashing of steel between gentlemen of standing. Prepare yourself and... ‘select your weapon’!
GREEK ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Greek Swords & Greek Daggers were such powerful and effective weapons that other cultures quickly adopted ancient Greek designs. Taking metalworking techniques from the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the Greek sword (hopllite) soon become the preferred sword of the Bronze Era. To maintain a warrior's strength, fighting skills and endurance, all Greek warriors practiced ‘peaceful war games’ (which actually became the Olympics. Maintain your victorious ‘edge’ with a beautiful Greek sword!
VIKING ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Viking Swords & Daggers were prized possessions of the fearless Viking men and marked a warrior’s status. Swords in this era were rare, hard to make and expensive. It could easily cost as much as 16 cows to buy a sword (in a fair trade). Since war for profit was the primary means of support for these people, the Viking sword was critical to a warrior’s success and survival. Vikings founded and settled Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Whether attacking on foot or in their battleships with terrifying dragon figureheads, the image of the charging warrior with his Viking sword raised high struck fear in hearts of the opposition.
CELTIC ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Celtic Swords and Daggers are most noted for their magical history or enormous size. Celtic one–handed short swords are recognized by their human–shaped hilts. Celtic two–handed Scottish Claymores were some of the largest swords in history (over 5 feet long). Celtic mystic culture thrived in most of Central and Western Europe for many years, and the Scots, Welsh and Irish have preserved their Celtic heritage over the years. King Arthur is thought to be from Wales, and the returning of Excalibur to The Lady of the Lake is consistent with Welsh and Celtic traditions of deposing of swords, weaponry and other valuables into sacred lakes and rivers when important people died. As well, the naming of Celtic swords is a historic Celtic tradition which has become popular in other cultures.
MOORISH ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Moorish Scimitar Swords were originally hunting swords of a slender design (neither Turkish or Arabic). Its popularity increased as it evolved into the awesome wide–blade curved sword with a crescent shaped tip – which is so well know today. This massive sword was initially called a “shamshir” (thought to mean ‘lion's tail’), and when the Persian cavalry adopted it for use as a fearsome slashing weapon, they forever secured a place in history for the scimitar. Hollywood has immortalized the scimitar as a fantasy sword living on through countless portrayals of sword stories like Arabian Nights, Sinbad and Aladdin. Touch a piece of history and feel the commanding power of your own Scimitar Sword!
DAMASCUS ERA SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Damascus Steel Swords are known by some as the strongest swords in history. Initially developed by the Syrians between 1100AD–1700AD, these swords relied on ‘wootz steel’ for its great hardness and degree of super elasticity (unequaled by any others). Easily recognized by the distinguishing “water markings” in the blade, they became prized possessions for their beauty and ability to cut other swords in half without dulling the blade! Although the secret art of making wootz steel died about 1750, a few techniques remain that can produce Damascus Steel Swords in several historical period designs for you. For more info see "Damascus Sword Making".
JAPANESE SAMURAI KATANA
The most elegant of all swords is the Japanese Samurai katana. Sleek and masterfully made, this sword comes alive in the hands of martial arts experts, just as clay is transformed in the hands of an artist. It seems the devotion, skill and intense loyalty of the Japanese Samurai have created an unshakeable legacy for the katana. As well, the dedicated craftsmanship of the Japanese guild swordsmiths and their commitment to honor, drove them to create pristine katanas worthy of their signature. Nothing but the best are found here. Develop new abilities with your own competition quality Japanese Samurai katana.
REENACTMENT SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Today you have the opportunity to step back in time and witness life as it might have been in eras past. Using special reenactment and stage steel swords, the bravest of souls participate in live combat as seen in plays and local festivals. Whether Roman, medieval or renaissance, these high–carbon steel swords include the simple and masterfully made sword to accommodate the needs of every period actor.
Confederate and Union reenactors proudly display their U.S. Civil War swords with their long curved blades, ornate guards and metal scabbards. On a professional level, Japanese Samurai Katana competition swords of the highest quality are used to mesmerize martial arts audiences around the world. Join the fun and become a part of history with your favorite period costume and reenactment sword!
MOVIE SWORDS AND DAGGERS
Hollywood has used movie swords to create some of the most memorable scenes in cinema history. Today with the aid of computer technology and high–action swordplay, movie swords are more popular than ever. Travel through time and defend the world with your favorite Lord of the Rings swords and daggers or fight for freedom with the Sword of Maximus from Gladiator.
BARGINS AND ACCESSORIES
Even in the days of old, swordsmiths were know to secretly offer close friends low price swords on copies and special clearance items - but did so fearing the wrath of nobles and the royals! It was much safer to provide wooden practice swords to those wishing to develop swordsmanship skills and sword accessories were often easily obtained just down the road.
SHIELD
A shield is a type of personal armor, meant to intercept attacks, either by stopping projectiles such as arrows or by glancing a blow to the side of the shield-user. Shields vary greatly in size, ranging from large shields that protect the user's entire body to small shields that are mostly for use in hand-to-hand combat. Shields also vary a great deal in thickness; whereas some shields were made of thick wooden planking, to protect soldiers from spears and crossbow bolts, other shields were thinner and designed mainly for glancing blows away (such as a sword blow). In prehistory, shields were made of wood, animal hide, or wicker. In antiquity and in the Middle Ages, shields were used by footsoldiers and mounted soldiers. Even after the invention of gunpowder and firearms, shields continued to be used. In the 18th century, Scottish clans continued to use small shields, and in the 19th century, some non-industrialized peoples continued to use shields (e.g. Zulu warriors). In the 20th and 21st century, shields are used by military and police units that specialize in anti-terrorist action, hostage rescue, and siege-breaching. The term often refers to a device that is held in the hand/arm, as opposed to an armoured suit or a bullet proof vest.
HISTORY OF SHIELDS
Here at the dawn of the 21st century we are experiencing a resurgence in the study of ancient arms. Not since the Victorian age has there been such an interest in the arms of the Middle Ages and the renaissance. Fine copies of swords, daggers, polearms, and a number of other weapons are being manufactured, and the craft of the modern armourer has also reached new heights of quality and authenticity. Students of the sword enjoy Web sites, discussion forums and exciting new books dedicated to this most famous of edged weapons. On the other hand, there is a dearth of new material on the shield. Books such as Medieval Sword & Shield (Paul Wagner and Stephen Hand), and The Anglo-Saxon Shield (I.P. Stephenson), are welcome additions to this field of study, but these works are in the minority.
This is truly unfortunate, considering the shield's historic role. For over two-thousand years it was a vital piece of military equipment. Everyone, from the lowest peasant to the highest noble, would have used one. In many cultures the shield was the mark of a warrior, even more so than the sword or spear. The Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus wrote, "To lose one's shield is the basest of crimes," and we have all heard the familiar legend of the Spartan mother telling her son, "Come back with your shield or upon it."
The intent of this article is to give the shield a bit of increased exposure. A myriad of types and styles of shields have been used throughout history, and it would be nearly impossible for us to cover them all here. Instead, we have chosen to cover several classic shield designs in use during key periods in history. Hopefully, we will be able to illustrate just how important the shield was to the ancient warrior.
The Greek Shield
Beginning in about the seventh century BC, the most common form of Greek shield was a large, deeply concave, circular shield made of wood and bronze. This was called a hoplon, and it gave its name to the Greek soldier, the hoplite. These shields are today often referred to as Argive shields, and, in many ways, they made the Greek phalanx possible. These hoplon shields seem to have been derived from a type of short-lived circular shield made entirely of bronze and having a single, centrally-mounted handgrip on the inside. The hoplon, like its predecessors, averaged about 31-39 inches in diameter, but unlike the previous type, was made with a wooden core and had a different method of being gripped. Instead of the single handgrip, it was supported by means of a bronze, or bronze and leather, strap in the center of the back face of the shield, and a leather or cord grip at the edge. This was large enough for the warrior's left arm to slide through up to the forearm, while the hand held the grip located at the edge of the shield. Because of the sharply concave shape of these shields, the inside of the rim could be rested against the warrior's shoulder, which would help both to brace the shield against powerful blows, and take some of the strain off of his arms. The last point is particularly important as these shields weighed around 15.5 pounds.
The core of a hoplon was constructed of a thin wood which was approximately 0.2 inches thick. They were lined with thin leather, and then the strap through which the arm passed was attached to the back of the shield. Occasionally, there was also a rectangular reinforcing plate mounted between the strap and the wooden core. The front of the shield was then covered with bronze and was usually painted. There are surviving examples of hoplon shields that have bronze figures or designs mounted on the front of them, but these were most likely intended for ceremonial or dedication purposes as such decoration would not have survived long on the field of battle. Because of the way the hoplon was gripped, a good portion of the shield extended past the user's left side. This meant that, in a phalanx, a soldier's shield would provide a degree of protection to the man to his left. It was very common for soldiers to shift to the right in an effort to take full advantage of their neighbor's shield and this resulted in a general crowding to the right to the point that the right wing of a phalanx would often end up past the left flank of the opposing formation. When this occurred, the right wing of the phalanx could turn and attack its opponent in the flank. This technique often resulted in the right wing winning the battle, and it is for this reason that the right end of a phalanx became a position of honor.
When used in the close proximity of a phalanx, a shield cannot be used to deflect blows, as was often the purpose of shields in other times and places. Instead, it had to absorb the force of a blow or projectile so as not to redirect that same attack onto the next man. The great weight of these shields would have helped in that respect, as more force would have been required to move the shield. In order to better protect the hoplites' legs and feet, this shield was sometimes fitted with a leather apron or curtain suspended from its bottom. Because of its great size, however, a hoplon could get in the way as a soldier advanced and this would be even more noticeable with the leather curtain attached. Hoplon shields are often described as covering a man from chin to knee, and it is easy to see that a soldier's legs would constantly be bumping into the shield when he tried to move forward. In order to avoid this problem, Greek soldiers would hold the shield horizontally while advancing. This technique would still provide some protection, but would also get the shield out of the way of the legs. When not in battle, these shields were very often placed in leather covers, but it is uncertain if they had any kind of strap for carrying the shield. It is likely that a soldier on the march would simply have rested his shield on his shoulder, holding it at his side rather than in front.
The hoplon, or argive shield, made the Greek phalanx possible. It was uniquely suited to the style of combat employed by the Greeks, and was such an integral part of their panoply that the soldier himself was named after this piece of equipment. According to Plutarch, a foreigner once asked King Demaratos of Sparta why it was that warriors who had lost their shields in battle were dishonored while those who had lost their helmets and breastplates were not. He responded by saying, "Because the latter they donned for their own protection, but the shield for the common good of the entire line." This story demonstrates the enormous value the Greeks attached to this particular item. To say that Hellenic tactics were heavily influenced by the shield would be too simple a statement. It is far more accurate to say that the Greeks recognized the great potential of the shield and built the tactics of the day around its use. With their overlapping shields forming a virtually impenetrable wall, the Greek phalanx was one of the most lethal troop formations in the ancient world.
The Roman Shield
The Roman scutum also helped to define the way in which an entire nation fought. This unique shield design actually pre-dates the Roman Republic, but was used into the third century AD. The scutum was a large body shield usually measuring about 2.5 feet wide by 4 feet tall. It featured a very sharp curvature, and is generally described as being semi-cylindrical. There are a few varieties of scutum including oval, oval with the top and bottom squared off, rectangular, and even a few more exotic examples, such as oval with squared off sides. It is easy, and for the most part, true, to say that the scutum of the earlier republic was oval, while the rectangular scutum was in use later, around the first century AD. This is not, however, a hard-and-fast rule, as there is evidence of rectangular scuti (the plural of scutum) as early as 500 BC.
The scutum was made of plywood covered with leather, making it both strong and flexible. The plywood construction of these shields consisted of three layers of thin wooden strips, about 2.5 inches to 4 inches wide. The outer two layers ran horizontally, while the strips of the inside layer were oriented vertically. This was sometimes backed with ribs of wood pegged or glued into place to help reinforce the shield. A horizontal handgrip was attached behind the centrally located boss. In earlier scuti, this boss fit over the wooden spine that ran down the center of the shield, later models did away with the spine and used a more simplified square plate with a hemispherical dome attached directly to the shield face.
The scutum was about 0.5 inches thick in the center, while its edges, measuring 0.4 inches, were slightly thinner. Obviously, the weight of these shields varied. In general, the oval scuti were heavier and weighed around 22 pounds, which is even heavier than the Greek hoplon, while the rectangular variety tended to weigh about 15 pounds. The earlier oval scutum usually had a rim of either bronze or iron only on the top and bottom edges, but the rectangular scutum most often had a full metal rim around. The scutum would have been decorated, usually painted, with the insignia of the unit, and often was stored in a leather case which bore the same insignia formed from pieces of leather sewn onto the face of the cover. Many such covers survive, and have helped provide information on the size and shape of the scutum.
Because of the curvature of a scutum, it would have been very difficult for a soldier to draw a sword—even one as short as the Roman gladius—from across his body. To avoid this potential snag, the legionary carried his gladius suspended on his right side. In battle, the Romans began an engagement by advancing close to their enemies, at which point they would deliver a volley of pila (singular pilum), a distinctive type of javelin with a long, slender head designed to penetrate or stick in an opponent's shield and make it too awkward to use. Depending on the situation, the Romans might hurl another volley of pila, and then they would charge the enemy with swords drawn. During the charge, the legionary would hold his shield in front of himself so that the force of the impact would, hopefully, knock his opponent to the ground. In this way, the scutum could serve as an offensive weapon by battering the enemy with the central boss and by hacking at him with the metal-bound edge.
Once he had reached, and overbalanced, his enemy, the legionary would often rest his scutum on the ground and fight from behind it while crouched. This would lower his center of gravity, making it harder for him to be pushed back or knocked off-balance, and would also allow for more of his body to be protected by the shield. From this position, subsequent ranks could also more easily fight or throw additional pila. It should be stressed that this technique would result in a rather static position, and Roman tactics tended to rely on moving forward, so the soldier might have advanced with subsequent short charges whenever possible, and it is certain that, when called for, he would have held his shield in front of himself and continued to press forward. Regardless of which method was used, it is clear that the scutum was a body shield used in a relatively fixed manner, and not something that would have been wielded like the smaller, lighter shields of the late medieval period.
In siege warfare, the scutum could be employed in a unique formation known as the testudo, or tortoise. In the testudo, the soldiers on the front and sides of the formation would hold their shields outward, while the remainder would overlap their shields above the heads of the formation. The result was a box enclosed on the front, sides, and top, leaving very few vulnerable openings. The testudo allowed the Romans to approach and undermine walls without much fear of arrows or rocks from above. It could be disrupted by weapons such as burning fat, but the testudo still served well as a quickly and easily deployed siege weapon.
The scutum was a very versatile shield that was well-suited to combat with tightly-packed or loosely-arrayed troops, and was also very useful in a siege. This shield played an important role in the conquest of the known world, and is more that worthy of the recognition that it still receives today.
The Celtic Shield
In its classic form, the Celtic shield consists of an ovoid shield board with a long, spindle-shaped umbo with a spine extending vertically along the shield board. This style of construction is shared by the Republican era Roman scutum, as well as Etruscan and Iberian shield forms, suggesting a common ancestral type. However, as the centuries progressed, the form became less and less identified with the Mediterranean peoples. Both Greek and Roman art depicted the oval shield with the spindle boss as an identifying feature of the barbarian Celt's shield. Since the main components of these shields are organic, direct archaeological evidence is limited, and historians are often forced to extrapolate from meager evidence.
The Celtic shield is known from approximately the 6th century BC to the early centuries AD through artwork, scattered remains of fittings, and in a few rare instances, wholly preserved shields. The site of La Tène produced such preserved Celtic shields. Related finds in Celtic influenced areas—Hjortspring in Denmark and Clonnoura in Ireland—have provided more examples of preserved Celtic shields to provide rare insight. An additional find in Fayum, Egypt, near where Celtic mercenaries were given land, revealed yet another remarkably well-preserved shield. This last is not definitively Celtic or Roman, but has been alternately claimed as both.
This basic shield form varied little through the centuries. From 6th century Halstatt scabbard engravings to post-conquest British votive carvings, we see the Celtic barbarian armed with the spindle-bossed ovoid shield. On the Continent, the shape was generally seen as an ovoid: not a true ellipse rather more like a rectangle whose sides have been curved slightly. In some cases, the shape is very curved and ovoid, as seen in the Pergamon arch, the Chertsey shield, and the surviving shields from La Tène. The rectangular form with rounded corners is typified by those seen on the Civitalba frieze, the Bormio relief, and the surviving shields from Hjortspring. The victory arch at Orange shows both rectangular, ovoid, rounded rectangles, and elongated hexagonal shapes.
Several thin bronze votive shields have been found in Britain. One of these, the Chertsey shield, depicts a very typical ovoid shield with a spindle boss extending the length of the shield. However, the Witham and Battersea shields show a form that appears to be distinctly British: an elongated rectangle with rounded corners but slightly concave lines along its length. This waisted shape does not appear to have a Continental counterpart.
Typical of the Celtic shield is a spindle-shaped boss, with spines of varying length, in cases extending nearly the full length of the shield. On the shield preserved at La Tène, the spine extends only about 1/2 the length of the shield. In other instances, the spine is virtually nonexistent, making the boss shape more a pointed oval, as typified by the Hjortspring shields. In the last days of the Celtic culture, 1st century BC to the early centuries AD, the wooden umbo was increasingly supplanted by a domed hemispherical metal boss; shields of this form have been found at the site of Caesar's siege of Alesia (1st century BC). However, Alesia also yielded the strap-type boss, indicating that the spindle-shaped umbo was also still in use.
British shields show evidence of both the full-length spindle (Chertsey shield) and the pointed oval variety (several Salisbury votive shields). Nonetheless, votive shields and carvings seem to indicate a preference for a spherical umbo with or without attached spines. This does not necessarily indicate a metal domed boss as such metallic fittings are quite rare in the British archaeological record. The Irish Clonnoura shield, by way of reference, has a domed, nearly round boss of alderwood covered in leather.
Unlike the Roman shields, the barbarian Celtic shield was flat. Extant surviving shields possess a solid umbo of wood, and a shield body of plank construction. However, the surviving Fayum shield was of slatted construction, with a shield body composed of three layers of birch strips glued together at right angles: a form of primitive plywood. No existing Celtic shield of plied construction has yet been found. However, the carvings of the Pergamon arch and the Mondragon warrior both have carved detail depicting broad diagonal bands with grained texture. This may indicate planks set at diagonals, or may indicate diagonal slatted construction in a form of plied shield board not yet found.
The Fayum shield had a covering of glued and stitched-on wool felt. It is presumed that Celtic shields would be similarly covered in fabric, or in leather like the Clonnoura shield. Rims could similarly be reinforced with organic material: the Fayum shield had the wool felt fabric doubled up over the rim, forming a wide thickened band to strengthen the edge. The Clonnoura shield had a thin edging of stitched on leather to reinforce the edge. Either method of rimming would be effective for Celtic shields, and could explain the wide rim or binding carved on the Pergamon relief shields.
In earlier Celtic graves, the shields were all organic, as described above, since the only grave remains are the occasional metal grip reinforcement, or a pair of nails which would have attached the handgrip. By the early 3rd century BC, more metal shield fittings appear with grave goods. Shaped metal plates nailed onto the wooden umbo to strengthen it appear during this period, to gradually be replaced in the late 3rd century BC by a band-shaped metal strip which fit over the wooden umbo to reinforce the hollowed grip area. Metallic edge bindings also appear from time to time in this period; thin gutter-shaped strips in iron on the Continent, bronze in Britain. As the centuries progressed, the band-shaped boss became larger, and the flat portion attached to the shield board developed aillettes (or wings), making an almost butterfly-shaped boss. By the 1st century BC, some warriors had eschewed the wooden umbo altogether in favor of a hemispherical boss.
Generally speaking, the Celtic shield covered the warrior who bore it from just above the shoulder to the knee or upper shin, but surviving shields, few as they are, also show size variance. The Clonnoura shield is a tiny 22.8 by 14 inches; the Fayum shield measures 50.25 by 25.4 inches. The La Tène shields are more moderate, measuring about 43 by 24 inches.
Judging from surviving shields, and also surviving elements such as the nails securing umbos and metallic rimming, the thickness of a typical Celtic shield would be about half an inch in the center, tapering to about a quarter of an inch at the rim. A large shield like the Fayum would weigh about 22 pounds. A smaller shield like the oaken La Tène shield would weigh around 14 pounds. The shield was held via a transverse horizontal wooden grip beneath the umbo. Occasionally the grip is reinforced by a rather plain iron strip nailed at either end of the grip piece. The method of grip is palm-down, most clearly shown in the famous carving of the Flannery Celtic warrior brooch.
The Anglo-Saxon/Viking Shield
Other than in certain areas of aesthetic decoration, Anglo-Saxon shields and those used by the various Nordic or Viking countries were of the same design and construction, so they will be discussed together in this section.
Warfare was an important part of Nordic and Anglo-Saxon society. Men in these cultures were warriors first and foremost, farmers and traders second, and the shield was a powerful symbol of the warrior. Unfortunately, this important piece of equipment has been neglected in favor of the much more glamorous sword, and in some cases, even the common spear and axe. But the shield is by far the most common piece of military gear found in Anglo-Saxon and Nordic graves, being found in 45% of all grave excavations. It is unknown whether the shield that was placed into the grave was the personal shield of the deceased, or simply a representative piece. Indeed, the seeming fragility of some of these finds may indicate that they may have been made strictly as a symbolic addition to the grave goods, and were never meant for actual use.
One of the most characteristic details of this northern shield was its boss. Anglo-Saxon poetry gives us a clear indication of the boss's intended purpose in the line, "The boss belongs on the shield, the fingers' safe protection." To date, the archeological evidence indicates that the boss was circular in shape and made of iron. Early examples of the 5th through the 7th centuries were carinated, with later post-7th century examples assuming a cone or sugar-loaf shape. This change in design seems to have been intended to simplify production. Carinated bosses seem to have been formed of two pieces of sheet iron. One piece formed the cone that was wrapped around an apex which took the form of an iron rod, disc, or button. The second piece of iron was used to form the tube that supported the cone. Many cone-shaped or sugar-loaf bosses were evidently fashioned from one piece of sheet iron.
The boss's flange was set at an angle to the boss itself, so that it would seem that boards attached to the flange would have resulted in a cone-shaped shield. However, the flange's angle was instead meant to act as a spring against the shield board, keeping the rivets under tension and thus preventing a loosening of the assembly. The boss was attached to the shield board by a number of these evenly spaced rivets, which very rarely seem to also have been used to secure the hand-grip. Traces of textile have been found in the interior of several surviving bosses, indicating that padding may have been placed within the boss as an additional form of hand protection. Some recovered bosses display obvious combat damage. Often, this damage and the resulting repair work left no corresponding marks on the surviving shield boards. This gives a clear indication that ferrous fittings of the shield were often recycled back into new construction.
The other ferrous component of the northern shield's construction was the grip, although wooden examples may have also been used. The only depiction of the shield's grip is found on the Franks Casket, and this is far from a clear illustration. There is also an illustration in the Cotton Claudius B IV, an 11th century manuscript housed in the British library. All surviving Anglo-Saxon shield grips are made from iron, with the exception of one copper-alloy grip found in grave 25 at Orpington, England. The shield's grip tended to be formed of a piece with a supporting strip of iron. This component could either be short or long, and we do not know the rationale for length choice. This component was typically secured with two to four dome-headed rivets. More would be used as the supporting strip became longer. The grip was riveted to the shield across the grain of the central shield board, and usually in an off-center position in the board's hand-hole. There is no surviving evidence to indicate that carry-straps were ever used on shields of the Anglo-Saxon and Nordic cultures. Both the Franks Casket and Cotton Claudius B IV sources clearly show the shield being gripped with one hand, so from these we can assume the shield was normally held in this fashion.
All surviving Anglo-Saxon and Viking shield boards are of circular shape. Square, rectangular, or oval shapes do not seem to have been used by the northern peoples, and shields found in the Thorsbjerg bog deposit, as well as the Gokstad ship burial, bear this out. The cross-sectional shape of this shield type is far more difficult to determine. Some ancient writings seem to describe the shield as hollow, or curved, although this is open to debate. While all surviving shield board fragments indicate a flat circular shield, some excavated shield grips are curved along their length which might indicate a convex shield. The problem with this interpretation is that it is impossible to separate those grips that are intentionally curved from those that have been damaged or bent post-deposit. The shield found in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo is convex. However, this convexity occurs only within the last few inches of the shield's outer rim rather than at an even rate across the entirety of the shield's surface. This feature has been determined through a reconstruction using the shield's metal ornamentation.
Literary evidence indicates that the shield's body was typically made from planks of linden, also known as lime wood. Sources such as the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf repeatedly speak of linden shields. Recent analysis of the organic composition of surviving shield boards has, however, indicated that a wide range of woods were actually used. Woods such as alder, beech, ash, birch, poplar, and willow were also used. The term "linden" may in fact have simply been used as a catch-all phrase to describe the general nature of shield construction, much like the term "Kleenex" is used today to describe facial tissue. All shields thus far discovered, with the exception of the Gokstad shields, have been found to be covered with leather of one kind or another. Given the age and find-composition of this leather, assigning it to a particular species of animal is doubtful at best. However, a comment in the 10th century laws of Aethelstan state that no shield will be covered with sheepskin, so perhaps cowhide was the preferred covering. The exact composition of this leather covering is further muddled by the fact that the Anglo-Saxons also used cuir bouilli (hardened leather) and rawhide in their goods manufacturing. A cuir bouilli shield covering may have been used on the shield found in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo, however, no evidence remains to indicate that rawhide was used. Still, the material was known to these cultures so its use should not be discounted. The leather covering seems to have been intended primarily as a means of adding structural stability to the shield, as well as a field for artistic expression.
The shield's rim construction is also open to debate. Many illustrations show a distinct rim to the shield. Whether this depicts a reinforced rim or simply a decorated one is debatable. U-shaped strips made of iron as well as copper alloy have been found in excavations. These items point to some kind of rim reinforcement. Leather and rawhide may have been used, although no definitive evidence survives. Whatever form the shield's rim took it was obviously meant as an attempt at reinforcing the structural integrity of the shield.
The size of Anglo-Saxon and Viking shields can be determined by the location of the ferrous elements within the find-place. The size of the shield seems to have varied widely from 1 1/2 feet to 3 feet. Whether this difference in size was due to availability of materials, personal preference or social station is uncertain. The shield's face was often decorated with artistic elements. The Nordic cultures seem to have preferred painting their shields in simple geometric patterns. Anglo-Saxon shields followed the same trend, although examples owned by high ranking individuals, such as the shield found in Mound 1 at Sutton Hoo, display elaborate and costly decoration in the form of non-ferrous metals.
Anglo-Saxon poetry tells us, "A shield necessarily goes with a soldier." It is clear that the shield was more than just a piece of disposable battle gear to the Anglo-Saxon and Viking cultures. The shield was not only an indispensable piece of equipment for the warrior, it was also the hallmark of the man himself.
The Medieval Shield
The shields of the 11th to 15th centuries were not only used for defense but to also display the coat of arms and the wealth of the owner. It is likely that at first the fronts of the shields were simply painted, but by mid 13th century both sides were painted, with the fronts often containing tooled or molded leather adornment.
From the end of the Viking period at 1066 until the beginning of the 13th century the most widely used form of shield was the kite-shaped shield. The single best source for the shape and form of this shield during the 11th century is the Bayeux Tapestry. It portrays many of the Norman warriors carrying kite shields of half-body length. These shields have rounded upper edges, central bosses and an outwardly convex shape. During the 12th century the main shape of the shield remained the same, though not all depicted shields had central bosses. The so-called Temple Pyx bronze casket fragment from 1140-1150 shows knights carrying bossed kite shields much like the ones from the Bayeux Tapestry, but the Winchester Bible, 1170, and an illustration from the 12th century work The Life of Guthlac depict smaller size kite-shaped shields without bosses. The shields still featured a convex shape to offer better protection. As the 12th century progressed, the curve at the top of the shield became less prominent and at the beginning of the 13th century it flattened completely (Victory of Humility over Pride, 1200, from the Trier Jungfrauenspiegel, Kestner Museum, Hanover).
With the flattening of the top, the shield of the 13th century acquired a more triangular form (see the effigy of William Longespée, 1240). It was still convex but became even smaller in length. The majority of depicted shields do not have central bosses, although some did (Relief from Church of St. Justina, Padua, 1210). Towards the end of the 13th century the shield became even smaller and the shape changed to the so-called "heater" shield, due to its resemblance to the bottom of a heating iron. This is the shape that predominated until the early 15th century. This is, of course, an oversimplification, since in Italy the kite-shaped shield seems to have been as popular as the heater-shield. The heater shield was much flatter than its predecessors and did not feature the same convex shape. Towards the end of 14th century the top-right corner of the heater shield was notched. This allowed the shield to be used to guide the lance during mounted charge, likely during tournament jousting, but perhaps also on the battlefield.
Several surviving shields from the 12th to 14th century give us much detail about how the shields were constructed. One in the Landesmuseum, Zurich, dating from circa 1180, was made of lime wood covered inside and out with leather. Another shield from the late 13th century in the Armeria Real de Madrid is made from cedar-like wood with parchment covering on both sides, the parchment being thicker on the front. Both faces of this shield were painted black. Another late 13th century triangular shield bearing the arms of Von Nordech from Rabenau in the Nationalmuseum, Munich was made from three planks of wood, covered with leather and gesso (gypsum) and then painted. One of the most well-known examples of a surviving 14th century shield is the purported shield of Edward the Black Prince in the Canterbury Cathedral. This shield is thought to have been made especially for Edward's funeral achievements as it lacks any of the attachment straps that are required for military use. The shield measures 28 3/4 inches in height and 23 1/4 inches in width. It is made of joined poplar wood planks. The wood is covered with canvas and gesso, which are overlain by parchment and finally, leather. The front is painted and the Plantagenet coat of arms, made from molded leather, is glued on top. The three vertical metal bars on the shield represent Edward's rank in the family as first-born son. The back of the shield was painted green.
The way the shields were carried is most easily understood by studying the effigy of Sir Robert de Shurland (1330) and a surviving shield from the first half of the 14th century, currently in the Tyroler Landesmuseum, Innsbruck, which retains all its original straps. Both shields have two sets of straps. The first set consists of two buckled, adjustable straps forming a single loop called a guige, which is used to carry the shield over the shoulder. The second set of straps consists of three loops called enarmes, through which the left arm of the user goes. The left-most strap is near the elbow, the middle one is near the wrist, and the right-most strap could be grasped within the hand of the user if his hands were not used to hold the horse's reigns. The distancing and location of the three enarmes appears to have varied according to personal taste.
The Renaissance Shield
The shield of the Renaissance began to see less and less use on the battlefield. This at least partially owes to the development of better body armour. Since many soldiers and knights began wearing some sort of plate armour, the shield was an unnecessary form of protection, and a fighter could instead opt for using both hands on his weapon.
Some forms of shields were still used, however. The pavise, a long, generally rectangular or oblong shield, was still used to protect archers. It would generally be held up by a prop although sometimes a special shield-bearer would hold the pavise. Like earlier medieval shields, the pavise was often brightly painted and decorated, sometimes with a coat of arms or Biblical or martial scenes.
Variants of the round shield existed and were known by names such as the Italian rotella, the Spanish rodela and the English target. In the late 17th century many European armies had units of targeteers, soldiers armed with sword and target whose job was to storm breeches in walls during sieges. Even though the shield no longer enjoyed as large a role as it had in the Middle Ages some armies still favored it. An account by Beranl Diaz, a soldier in Herman Cortez's 1519 expedition to Mexico, records that the vast majority of Cortez's troops during his campaigns in the New World were rodeleros, or shield bearers, and outnumbered arquebusiers and crossbowmen. This was atypical, as other armies in Europe relied far less on the shield, and may have more to do with other factors of the New World, such as climate or availability of gun powder.
While the shield may have become less popular on the battlefield, it became more popular as a civilian form of defense. An interesting point to note is that, with the exception of specialized shields and bucklers, there is no surviving manuscript detailing the use of the shield prior to the Renaissance, when shields were more common. Yet in the Renaissance, when the personal duel became more common, there are several fencing manuals explaining the usage of the round shield. While other weapon combinations seem more common in these manuscripts, it would make sense that some combatants would prefer the defensive qualities of a shield since gentlemen usually were unarmoured in the duel.
The small shield known as the buckler survived throughout the Middle Ages into the renaissance, both on the battlefield and in civilian life. One of the reasons for the long life of the buckler was probably its convenience. It could be hung on a belt, out of the way of an archer who kept a sword and buckler handy for when the enemy closed, and was compact enough for everyday civilian wear.
Bucklers were constructed, variously, of hardened leather, wood and metal or solid steel. Although the buckler is commonly imagined as round, it took on many shapes and sizes, including the square targa depicted in Italian fencing manuals. Many civilian variants featured cutouts or projections intended to trap sword blades. A targa in The Wallace Collection has on its face raised circular bars similar in appearance to the heating coils on a modern stove top. In theory, these could catch a sword and possibly even break it. Such devices were more common for one-on-one duels as opposed to the battlefield, where having one's shield immobilized by an opponent's weapon would leave one vulnerable to attack from other opponents.
The Scottish Targe
The targe (targaid) is the Scottish version of a small wooden shield worn on the arm. According to Dr. Stephen Bull (curator of the Lancashire County and Regimental Museum), the targe was in use in Scotland from the 12th century until late in the 18th (long after shields had disappeared from military service elsewhere) but most of the surviving examples date to the 16th century or later. The Glasgow workshops appear to have made the majority of mass-produced targes. The overall shape and face embellishments on the targe make it one of the easiest shield types to spot and distinguish. This type of shield is almost invariably circular with diameter of about 20 inches. The face of the shield is usually covered with leather, often heavily ornamented by tooling elaborate patterns onto the leather and/or by developing complicated designs with metal tacks. Stewart Maxwell recently developed a typology of the Scottish targe based on these decorative elements. The targe often featured a central boss sometimes fitted with a metal spike projecting forward. Such spikes were removable and could be stored in scabbards in the back of the targe. Carrying straps appear to have been uncommon.
According to Collin Rolland, most surviving targes appear to have been made from oak or pine. The oak examples appear to be a bit thinner, as oak is heavier. On average targes were about half an inch thick. Damage or X-ray inspection of surviving examples reveals that all targes were of two-ply construction. Each ply consisted of irregular number of boards simply butted together. The boards were of different width, and were laid cross-wise to the other ply. The plies were held together by concentric rows of wooden pegs.
The backing of the targe varied from simple leather and calf or cow skin, to dear skin, seal or mountain goat skin. Often the skin used for the backing of the targe retained some of the animal hair. It typically also was stuffed with hair, straw, animal skin, etc. under the portion of the backing contacting the user's arm. The stuffing was held in place by a pair of parallel leather bands about 7 inches apart.
The targe is usually depicted as worn on the left arm to protect the upper body from cuts and thrusts. It was secured to the user's arm by a wide leather band (or two narrow, closely spaced bands) at the forearm (arm-loop) and by a leather or metal handle held in the palm (hand-grip). The forearm loop was secured to the targe by means of a metal staple or nails and so were the hand-grips when made of leather. These leather hand-grips had the thickness of a sword grip (by virtue of the wooden or rope core of the grip). The metal grips (the less common of the two types) were attached to the targe by means of two split pins and usually were inwardly concave to allow the user to pass his arm through the hand-grip and grasp a dirk (the popular Scottish fighting knife). Used in this manner, the dirk is held point-down and projecting for most of its length beneath the targe. The painting, An Incident in the Scottish Rebellion—1745 by P.D. Morier depicts this use, which has two advantages. First, the dirk is available for immediate use when needed. Second, the projecting blade of the dirk can be used to effectively parry oncoming attacks to the lower part of the body with a simple lateral motion.
Conclusion
From the Greek hoplon to the Scottish targe, the shield was more than simply an afterthought in the warrior's kit. Not only was the shield an integral part of the soldier's equipment, but it was also responsible for the development of the basic tactics used by armies throughout the centuries. More than simply a defensive tool, the shield was a weapon in its own right and the definitive symbol of the warrior caste in many cultures. For much of the history of edged weapons the shield marched hand-in-hand with the sword in terms of prestige and importance. It is an object worthy of intense study, and any collection of antique or replica arms is incomplete without it.
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